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finance Finance is the study and discipline of money, currency and capital assets. It is related to, but not synonymous with economics, the study of production, distribution, and consumption of money, assets, goods and services (the discipline of fina ...
, a stock index, or stock market index, is an
index Index (or its plural form indices) may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media Fictional entities * Index (''A Certain Magical Index''), a character in the light novel series ''A Certain Magical Index'' * The Index, an item on a Halo megastru ...
that measures a
stock market A stock market, equity market, or share market is the aggregation of buyers and sellers of stocks (also called shares), which represent ownership claims on businesses; these may include ''securities'' listed on a public stock exchange, as ...
, or a subset of the stock market, that helps
investor An investor is a person who allocates financial capital with the expectation of a future Return on capital, return (profit) or to gain an advantage (interest). Through this allocated capital most of the time the investor purchases some specie ...
s compare current
stock In finance, stock (also capital stock) consists of all the shares by which ownership of a corporation or company is divided.Longman Business English Dictionary: "stock - ''especially AmE'' one of the shares into which ownership of a company ...
price level The general price level is a hypothetical measure of overall prices for some set of goods and services (the consumer basket), in an economy or monetary union during a given interval (generally one day), normalized relative to some base set. ...
s with past prices to calculate market performance. Two of the primary criteria of an index are that it is ''investable'' and ''transparent'': The methods of its construction are specified. Investors can invest in a stock market index by buying an
index fund An index fund (also index tracker) is a mutual fund or exchange-traded fund (ETF) designed to follow certain preset rules so that the fund can a specified basket of underlying investments.Reasonable Investor(s), Boston University Law Review, avail ...
, which are structured as either a
mutual fund A mutual fund is a professionally managed investment fund that pools money from many investors to purchase securities. The term is typically used in the United States, Canada, and India, while similar structures across the globe include the SICAV i ...
or an
exchange-traded fund An exchange-traded fund (ETF) is a type of investment fund and exchange-traded product, i.e. they are traded on stock exchanges. ETFs are similar in many ways to mutual funds, except that ETFs are bought and sold from other owners throughout the ...
, and "track" an index. The difference between an index fund's performance and the index, if any, is called ''
tracking error In finance, tracking error or active risk is a measure of the risk in an investment portfolio that is due to active management decisions made by the portfolio manager; it indicates how closely a portfolio follows the index to which it is benchmarked ...
''. For a list of major stock market indices, see
List of stock market indices Commonly used stock market indices include: Global Large companies not ordered by any nation or type of business: * MSCI World (i.e. MSCI ACWI Index) * S&P Global 100 * S&P Global 1200 * The Global Dow – Global version of the Dow Jones In ...
.


Types of indices by weighting method

Stock market indices could be segmented by their index
weight In science and engineering, the weight of an object is the force acting on the object due to gravity. Some standard textbooks define weight as a Euclidean vector, vector quantity, the gravitational force acting on the object. Others define weigh ...
methodology, or the rules on how stocks are allocated in the index, independent of its stock coverage. For example, the S&P 500 and the S&P 500 Equal Weight both covers the same group of stocks, but S&P 500 is weighted by market capitalization and S&P 500 Equal Weight is an equal weight index. Below is a sample of common index weighting methods. In practice, many indices will impose constraints, such as concentration limits, on these rules. Market-capitalization weighting based indices weight constituent stocks by its
market capitalization Market capitalization, sometimes referred to as market cap, is the total value of a publicly traded company's outstanding common shares owned by stockholders. Market capitalization is equal to the market price per common share multiplied by t ...
(often shortened to "market-cap"), or its stock price by its number of shares outstanding, divided by the total market capitalization of all the constituents in the index. Under the capital asset pricing model, the market-cap weighted market portfolio, which could be approximated with the market-cap weighted equity index portfolio, is mean-variance efficient, meaning that it produces the highest return for a given level of risk. Tracking portfolios of the market-cap weighted equity index could also be mean-variance efficient under the right assumptions, and they could be attractive investment portfolios. A market-cap weighted index can also be thought of as a liquidity-weighted index since the largest-cap stocks tend to have the highest liquidity and the greatest capacity to handle investor flows; portfolios with such stocks could have very high investment capacity. Free-float adjusted market-capitalization weighting based indices adjust market-cap index weights by each constituent's shares outstanding for closely or strategically held shares that are not generally available to the public market. Such shares may be held by governments, affiliated companies, founders, and employees. Foreign ownership limits imposed by government regulation could also be subject to free-float adjustments. These adjustments inform investors of potential liquidity issues from these holdings that are not apparent from the raw number of a stock's shares outstanding. Free-float adjustments are complex undertakings, and different index providers have different free-float adjustment methods, which could sometimes produce different results. Price weighting based indices weight constituent stocks by its price per share divided by the sum of all share prices in the index. A price-weighted index can be thought of as a portfolio with one share of each constituent stock. However, a stock split for any constituent stock of the index would cause the weight in the index of the stock that split to decrease, even in the absence of any meaningful change in the fundamentals of that stock. This feature makes price-weighted indices unattractive as benchmarks for passive investment strategies and portfolio managers. Nonetheless, many price-weighted indices, such as the
Dow Jones Industrial Average The Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA), Dow Jones, or simply the Dow (), is a stock market index of 30 prominent companies listed on stock exchanges in the United States. The DJIA is one of the oldest and most commonly followed equity inde ...
and the
Nikkei 225 The Nikkei 225, or , more commonly called the ''Nikkei'' or the ''Nikkei index'' (), is a stock market index for the Tokyo Stock Exchange (TSE). It has been calculated daily by the '' Nihon Keizai Shimbun'' (''The Nikkei'') newspaper since 1950 ...
, are followed widely as visible indicators of day-to-day market movements. Equal weighting based indices give each constituent stocks weights of 1/n, where n represents the number of stocks in the index. This method produces the least-concentrated portfolios. Equal weighting of stocks in an index is considered a naive strategy because it does not show preference towards any single stock. Zeng and Luo (2013) notes that broad market equally weighted indices are factor-indifferent and randomizes factor mispricing. Equal weight stock indices tends to overweight small-cap stocks and to underweight large-cap stocks compared to a market-cap weighted index. These biases tend to give equal weight stock indices higher volatility and lower liquidity than market-cap weight indices. For example, the Barron's 400 Index assigns an equal value of 0.25% to each of the 400 stocks included in the index, which together add up to the 100% whole. Fundamental factor weighting based indices, or
fundamentally based indexes Fundamentally based indexes or fundamental indexes, also called fundamentally-weighted indexes, are indexes in which stocks are weighted according to factors related to their fundamentals such as earnings, dividends and assets, commonly used when p ...
, weight constituent stocks based on stock fundamental factors rather stock financial market data. Fundamental factors could include sales, income, dividends, and other factors analyzed in
fundamental analysis Fundamental analysis, in accounting and finance, is the analysis of a business's financial statements (usually to analyze the business's assets, liabilities, and earnings); health; and competitors and markets. It also considers the overall sta ...
. Similar to fundamental analysis, fundamental weighting assumes that stock market prices will converge to an intrinsic price implied by fundamental attributes. Certain fundamental factors are also used in generic factor weighting indices. Factor weighting based indices weight constituent stocks based on market risk factors of stocks as measured in the context of factor models, such as the Fama–French three-factor model. These indices Common factors include Growth, Value, Size, Yield, Momentum, Quality, and Volatility. Passive factor investing strategies are sometimes known as "smart beta" strategies. Investors could use factor investment strategies or portfolios to complement a market-cap weighted indexed portfolio by tilting or changing their portfolio exposure to certain factors. Volatility weighting based indices weight constituent stocks by the inverse of their relative price volatility. Price volatility is defined differently by each index provider, but two common methods include the standard deviation of the past 252 trading days (approximately one calendar year), and the weekly standard deviation of price returns for the past 156 weeks (approximately three calendar years). Minimum variance weighting based indices weight constituent stocks using a mean-variance optimization process. In a volatility weighted indices, highly volatile stocks are given less weight in the index, while in a minimum variance weighting index, highly volatile stocks that are negatively correlated with the rest of the index can be given relatively larger weights than they would be given in the volatility weighted index.


Types of indices by coverage

Stock market indices may be classified and segmented by the index coverage set of stocks. The coverage of an index is the underlying group of stocks, typically grouped together with some rationale from their underlying economics or underlying investor demand, that the index is trying to represent or track. For example, a 'world' or 'global' stock market index—such as the
MSCI World The MSCI World is a market cap weighted stock market index of 1,546 companies throughout the world. It is maintained by MSCI, formerly Morgan Stanley Capital International, and is used as a common benchmark for 'world' or 'global' stock funds i ...
or the
S&P Global 100 The S&P Global 100 Index is a stock market index of global stocks from Standard & Poor's. The S&P Global 100 measures the performance of 100 multi-national companies. It includes 100 large-cap companies from the S&P Global 1200 whose businesses a ...
—includes stocks from all over the world, and satisfies investor demand for an index for broad global stocks. Regional indices that make up the MSCI World index, such as the
MSCI Emerging Markets MSCI Inc. is an American finance company headquartered in New York City. MSCI is a global provider of equity, fixed income, real estate indexes, multi-asset portfolio analysis tools, ESG and climate products. It operates the MSCI World, MSCI A ...
index, includes stocks from countries with a similar level of economic development, which satisfies the investor demand for an index for
emerging market An emerging market (or an emerging country or an emerging economy) is a market that has some characteristics of a developed market, but does not fully meet its standards. This includes markets that may become developed markets in the future or were ...
stocks that may face similar economic fundamentals. The coverage of a stock market index is independent from the weighting method. For example, the
S&P 500 The Standard and Poor's 500, or simply the S&P 500, is a stock market index tracking the stock performance of 500 large companies listed on stock exchanges in the United States. It is one of the most commonly followed equity indices. As of D ...
market-cap weighted index covers the 500 largest stocks from the S&P Total Market Index, but an equally weighted S&P 500 index is also available with the same coverage. Country coverage indices represent the performance of the stock market of a given nation—and by proxy, reflects investor sentiment on the state of its economy. The most regularly quoted market indices are national indices composed of the stocks of large companies listed on a nation's largest stock exchanges, such as the
S&P 500 Index The Standard and Poor's 500, or simply the S&P 500, is a stock market index tracking the stock performance of 500 large companies listed on stock exchanges in the United States. It is one of the most commonly followed equity indices. As of D ...
in the United States, the
Nikkei 225 The Nikkei 225, or , more commonly called the ''Nikkei'' or the ''Nikkei index'' (), is a stock market index for the Tokyo Stock Exchange (TSE). It has been calculated daily by the '' Nihon Keizai Shimbun'' (''The Nikkei'') newspaper since 1950 ...
in
Japan Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north ...
, the
DAX Dax or DAX may refer to: Business and organizations * DAX, stock market index of the top 40 German companies ** DAX 100, an expanded index of 100 stocks, superseded by the HDAX ** TecDAX, stock index of the top 30 German technology firms * Dax ...
in
Germany Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwe ...
, the
NIFTY 50 The NIFTY 50 is a benchmark Indian stock market index In finance, a stock index, or stock market index, is an index that measures a stock market, or a subset of the stock market, that helps investors compare current stock price levels ...
in
India India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
, and the
FTSE 100 The Financial Times Stock Exchange 100 Index, also called the FTSE 100 Index, FTSE 100, FTSE, or, informally, the "Footsie" , is a share index of the 100 companies listed on the London Stock Exchange with (in principle) the highest market ...
in the
United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Europe, off the north-western coast of the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotland, Wales and North ...
. Regional coverage indices represent the performance of the stock market of a given geographical region. Some examples of these indices are the FTSE Developed Europe Index, and the FTSE Developed Asia Pacific Index. Global coverage indices represent the performance of the global stock market. The
FTSE Global Equity Index Series The FTSE Global Equity Index Series is a series of stock market indices provided by FTSE Group. It was launched in September 2003, and provides coverage of over 16,000 stocks in 48 countries. The series comprises various global and local indexes, i ...
includes over 16,000 companies. Exchange-based coverage indices may be based on exchange, such as the
NASDAQ-100 The Nasdaq-100 (^NDX) is a stock market index made up of 101 equity securities issued by 100 of the largest non-financial companies listed on the Nasdaq stock exchange. It is a modified capitalization-weighted index. The stocks' weights in the in ...
or groups of exchanges, such as the
Euronext 100 The Euronext 100 Index is the blue chip (stock market), blue chip Index (finance), index of the pan-European exchange, Euronext NV. It comprises the largest and most liquid stocks traded on Euronext. Each stock must trade more than 20 percent of ...
or OMX Nordic 40. Sector-based coverage indices track the performance of specific
market sector The term market sector is used in economics and finance to describe a part of the economy. It is usually a broader term than '' industry'', which is a set of businesses that are buying and selling such similar goods and services that they are in ...
s. Some examples include the Wilshire US REIT Index which tracks more than 80
real estate investment trust A real estate investment trust (REIT) is a company that owns, and in most cases operates, income-producing real estate. REITs own many types of commercial real estate, including office and apartment buildings, warehouses, hospitals, shopping cente ...
s and the NASDAQ Biotechnology Index which consists of approximately 200 firms in the
biotechnology Biotechnology is the integration of natural sciences and engineering sciences in order to achieve the application of organisms, cells, parts thereof and molecular analogues for products and services. The term ''biotechnology'' was first used b ...
industry.


Presentation of index returns

Some indices, such as the S&P 500 Index, have returns shown calculated with different methods. These versions can differ based on how the index components are
weighted A weight function is a mathematical device used when performing a sum, integral, or average to give some elements more "weight" or influence on the result than other elements in the same set. The result of this application of a weight function is ...
and on how
dividend A dividend is a distribution of profits by a corporation to its shareholders. When a corporation earns a profit or surplus, it is able to pay a portion of the profit as a dividend to shareholders. Any amount not distributed is taken to be re-in ...
s are accounted. For example, there are three versions of the S&P 500 Index: price return, which only considers the price of the components, total return, which accounts for dividend reinvestment, and net total return, which accounts for dividend reinvestment after the deduction of a
withholding tax Tax withholding, also known as tax retention, Pay-as-You-Go, Pay-as-You-Earn, Tax deduction at source or a ''Prélèvement à la source'', is income tax paid to the government by the payer of the income rather than by the recipient of the income ...
. The
Wilshire 4500 The Wilshire 4500 Completion Index, more commonly the Wilshire 4500, is a capitalization-weighted index of all stocks actively traded in the United States with the exception of the stocks included in the S&P 500 index. The index is created by rem ...
and
Wilshire 5000 The Wilshire 5000 Total Market Index, or more simply the Wilshire 5000, is a market-capitalization-weighted index of the market value of all American-stocks actively traded in the United States. As of March 31, 2022, the index contained 3,660 c ...
indices have five versions each: full capitalization total return, full capitalization price, float-adjusted total return, float-adjusted price, and equal weight. The difference between the full capitalization, float-adjusted, and equal weight versions is in how index components are weighted.


Criticism of capitalization-weighting

One argument for capitalization weighting is that investors must, in aggregate, hold a capitalization-weighted portfolio anyway. This then gives the average return for all investors; if some investors do worse, other investors must do better (excluding costs).


Indices and passive investment management

Passive management Passive management (also called passive investing) is an investing strategy that tracks a market-weighted index or portfolio. Passive management is most common on the equity market, where index funds track a stock market index, but it is becoming ...
is an investing strategy involving investing in index funds, which are structured as mutual funds or exchange-traded funds that track market indices. The SPIVA (S&P Indices vs. Active) annual "U.S. Scorecard", which measures the performance of indices versus actively managed mutual funds, finds the vast majority of active management mutual funds underperform their benchmarks, such as the S&P 500 Index, after fees. Unlike a mutual fund, which is priced daily, an exchange-traded fund is priced continuously and is optionable.


Ethical stock market indices

Several indices are based on
ethical investing Socially responsible investing (SRI), social investment, sustainable socially conscious, "green" or ethical investing, is any investment strategy which seeks to consider both financial return and social/environmental good to bring about social ...
, and include only companies that meet certain ecological or social criteria, such as the
Calvert Social Index The Calvert Social Index is a stock market index created by Calvert Investments as a benchmark of large companies that are considered socially responsible or ethical. It currently consists of 680 companies, weighted by market capitalization, select ...
, Domini 400 Social Index,
FTSE4Good Index The FTSE4Good Index Series is a series of ethical investment stock market indices launched in 2001 by the FTSE Group which reports on the performance of companies which demonstrate "strong Environmental, Social and Governance practices". A numbe ...
, Dow Jones Sustainability Index, STOXX Global ESG Leaders Index, several
Standard Ethics Aei Standard Ethics is an independent sustainability reporting rating agency based in London, known for its sustainable finance and ESG (Environmental, Social and Governance) studies. In 2001, it introduced a standardised approach to sustainabilit ...
indices, and the Wilderhill Clean Energy Index. Other ethical stock market indices may be based on diversity weighting (Fernholz, Garvy, and Hannon 1998). In 2010, the
Organisation of Islamic Cooperation An organization or organisation (Commonwealth English; see spelling differences), is an entity—such as a company, an institution, or an association—comprising one or more people and having a particular purpose. The word is derived from ...
announced the initiation of a stock index that complies with
Sharia Sharia (; ar, شريعة, sharīʿa ) is a body of religious law that forms a part of the Islamic tradition. It is derived from the religious precepts of Islam and is based on the sacred scriptures of Islam, particularly the Quran and the H ...
's ban on alcohol, tobacco and gambling. Critics of such initiatives argue that many firms satisfy mechanical "ethical criteria", e.g. regarding board composition or hiring practices, but fail to perform ethically with respect to shareholders, e.g.
Enron Enron Corporation was an American energy, commodities, and services company based in Houston, Texas. It was founded by Kenneth Lay in 1985 as a merger between Lay's Houston Natural Gas and InterNorth, both relatively small regional companies. ...
. Indeed, the seeming "seal of approval" of an ethical index may put investors more at ease, enabling scams. One response to these criticisms is that trust in the corporate management, index criteria, fund or index manager, and securities regulator, can never be replaced by mechanical means, so "
market transparency In economics, a market is transparent if much is known by many about: What products and services or capital assets are available, market depth (quantity available), what price, and where. Transparency is important since it is one of the theoreti ...
" and "
disclosure Disclosure may refer to: Arts and media * ''Disclosure'' (The Gathering album), 2012 *Disclosure (band), a UK-based garage/electronic duo * ''Disclosure'' (novel), 1994 novel written by Michael Crichton ** ''Disclosure'' (1994 film), an American ...
" are the only long-term-effective paths to fair markets. From a financial perspective, it is not obvious whether ethical indices or ethical funds will out-perform their more conventional counterparts. Theory might suggest that returns would be lower since the investible universe is artificially reduced and with it portfolio efficiency. On the other hand, companies with good social performances might be better run, have more committed workers and customers, and be less likely to suffer reputation damage from incidents (oil spillages, industrial tribunals, etc.) and this might result in lower share price volatility. The empirical evidence on the performance of ethical funds and of ethical firms versus their mainstream comparators is very mixed for both stock and debt markets.


See also

*
Index of accounting articles This page is an index of accounting topics. {{AlphanumericTOC, align=center, nobreak=, numbers=, references=, externallinks=, top=} A Accounting ethics - Accounting information system - Accounting research - Activity-Based Costing - ...
*
Index of economics articles This aims to be a complete article list of economics topics: A * Absence rate – Accountancy – Accounting reform – Actuary – Adaptive expectations – Adverse selection – Agent (economics) – Agent-based computational economics – A ...
* Index of management articles *
List of stock exchanges This is a list of major stock exchanges. Those futures exchanges that also offer trading in securities besides trading in futures contracts are listed both here and in the list of futures exchanges. There are sixteen stock exchanges in the world ...
*
List of stock market indices Commonly used stock market indices include: Global Large companies not ordered by any nation or type of business: * MSCI World (i.e. MSCI ACWI Index) * S&P Global 100 * S&P Global 1200 * The Global Dow – Global version of the Dow Jones In ...
* Outline of accounting *
Outline of marketing The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to marketing: Marketing – social and managerial processes by which products, services, and value are exchanged in order to fulfill individuals' or groups' needs and wants ...


References


External links

* {{Authority control Stock market